argument from analogy criteria
28/02/2021
BACKFor example, we can substitute the letter A for the subject, that is the topic of the argument. My high school physics teacher is able to revolutionize physics. An inductive argument, sometimes considered bottom-up logic, is one in which premises offer strong support for a conclusion, but one that is not a certainty. In considering whether an argument from analogy has satisfied the total evidence condition, ask next. We would be lost without good guideposts. Finally, the paper relates the approach to others and discusses future directions. A Guide to Good Reasoning: Cultivating Intellectual Virtues, Next: Chapter Sixteen: Explanatory Arguments, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, The Total Evidence Condition (1): Relevant Similarities, The Total Evidence Condition (2): Irrelevant Dissimilarities, The Special Character of Arguments from Analogy. In the end, the background argument cannot itself be some other argument from analogy, since the background argument would depend on a background argument (and so on). Since the ill and infirm resemble children in many ways, being not merely physically weak and helpless but also psychologically dependent, it is fairly easy to conclude that women are also especially qualified to care for the sick. This makes it especially important to pay close attention to the first part of the total evidence condition. For each of the arguments in set (a), answer whether the basic similarity is relevant. How does the first part of the total evidence condition provide logical strength? Accepted: 28-12-2015. The Reasoning behind an Argument by Analogy An Analogy … "In general (but not always), such arguments belong in the category of inductive reasoning, since their conclusions do not follow with certainty but are only … A man is not expected to remove his hat in other vehicles, so there is no need for him to do so in an elevator. They name the two analogs[1]—that is, the two things (or classes of things) that are said to be analogous. If that way of reasoning succeeds, the argument from analogy gets psychological credit for suggesting it, even if it gets no logical credit for supporting it. Analogies to say that two things (or cases) are analogous is to. Argument by analogy example. Oliver Wendell Holmes, chief justice of the Supreme Court, argued that they did not have the right to circulate the leaflets during wartime. “Expressions of shock and sadness came from other coaches and administrators following the announcement by Tulane President Eamon Kelly that the school planned to drop its basketball program in the wake of the alleged gambling scheme and newly discovered NCAA violations. Además, permiten detallar las fases de una argumentación por analogÃa mediante las configuraciones de los dominios que involucra. They’re the things that are similar, analogous to c. This, taken by itself, certainly makes the theater case a better candidate for exemption from free speech protection, and thus it counts as a relevant dissimilarity. Evaluating Arguments by Analogy Reference Textbook: CH. Conclusive analogical argument. Uploaded By h875128. We illustrate how certain norms, explicitly set by a teacher, can create tensions, and how the negotiation process of these norms brings momentary dissipation of such tensions, due to the students' interpretation of informal argument. I try to characterize the structure and function of these arguments. Hume 's Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion is a work widely admired for the clarity of its thought, the importance of its theme, and the felicity of its literary expres-sion. For each of these premises, decide whether its addition would make the conclusion of the resulting argument "MORE OR LESS PROBABLE." Argument from analogy—an argument that asserts that because two items are the same in one respect, they are the same in another respect. But arguments from analogy on matters of ethics or religion many times do generate controversy. Breceda and lifeguards up and down the beach stressed the dangers of sleeping on the beach at night. Argument by Analogy Argument by Analogy Juthe, A. Although not all arguments from analogy are unsound, they do establish their conclusions far less often than any other sort of argument. These Lecture notes explain a particular method for analyzing Arguments by Analogy. Spell. It is further discussed that some arguments, which are not explicit arguments … ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY (This form of inductive reasoning relies on the theory that there are shared attributes.) Chapter Three: A Framework for Clarifying, Chapter Seven: A Framework for Evaluating, Part Four: Evaluating the Truth of the Premises, Chapter Ten: How to Think About Deductive Logic, Chapter Twelve: Either–Or Arguments and More, Chapter Thirteen: How to Think About Inductive Logic, Chapter Fourteen: Inductive Generalization. The argument begins with something familiar—of course we don’t have the right to falsely shout fire in a theater—and invites us to conclude the same about something less familiar—under certain circumstances we don’t even have the right to explain to others our interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. Argument by analogy: In an argument by analogy a conclusion is claimed to depend on analogy (a comparison or similarity) between two or more than two things. In considering whether an argument from analogy has satisfied the total evidence condition, first ask. ‘It led Truman to believe that Stalin would hold free elections in Eastern Europe,’ says Deborah Larson, a UCLA political scientist.” —, Gerry Spence is serving as the pro bono defense attorney for an “environmental terrorist” who embedded metal plates in trees so that the bulldozers would be wrecked (and, potentially, the drivers injured). In practical reasoning, however, one must often reach a judgment about the crucial features of some particular situation in order to determine an appropriate course of action with respect to it. It’s much more like A=B and both have characteristics x, y, and z. Fifa 98 games download. In short, even if we forget that the phrase clear and present danger may be equivocal, the argument does not score well on the second portion of the total evidence condition. School York University; Course Title MODR 1760G; Type. Its logic can be judged, at best, as fairly weak. My high school physics teacher is smart, though not as smart as Einstein. Would you advise him to turn down the offer of a professional newspaper job? The purpose of this paper is to explore the phenomenon of countering figurative analogies in legislative debates, and to show that resistance to figurative analogies is a complex phenomenon comprising various types of criticisms to different types of metaphor. It is further discussed that some arguments, which are not explicit arguments by analogy, nevertheless should be interpreted as such and not as inductive or deductive arguments. Domain constraint, the requirement that analogues be selected from "the same category," inheres in the popular saying "you can't compare apples and oranges" and the textbook principle "the greater the number of shared properties, the stronger the argument from analogy." We recognize that people will continue to have sex for nonreproductive reasons, whatever the laws, and with that in mind we try to make sexual practices as safe as possible in order to minimize the spread of the sexually transmitted diseases. First, they must reflect the fact that the conclusion of an argument by analogy is a normative claim about how to decide a certain case (the target case). This is because arguers often assume, rightly, that the similarity between two analogs is so obvious that it goes without saying. Arguments from analogy are some of the most commonly used arguments. I review the objections that have been raised against the two main accounts of reasoning by precedent: the rule-account and the analogy-account. “We feel instinctive sympathy for the defendant who pleads, ‘I tried to get a job and nobody would hire me. Novel direct metaphor as part of an analogy argument has received most attention, while indirect metaphor can constitute argumentative moves as well, such as the introduction of a standpoint, starting point or connection premise. Argument by analogy has long been regarded as the characteristic way of arguing in ancient Chinese culture. Evaluating Analogies: The best way to evaluate an analogy is to rewrite it into its standard form as ask yourself if each premise is true. 3 In contemporary argumentation studies, argument by analogy has also received particular attention since the 1980s, resulting in a variety of views, as well as some controversies, regarding its typology (Govier 1987(Govier , 1989Waller 2001;Guarini 2004;Kraus 2015), mechanism (Woods and Hudak 1989;Juthe 2005Juthe , 2009; Bermejo-Luque 2012; Macagno et al. [The basketball program is a college program.]. On that basis, it is argued that although such a characterization captures the logical structure of analogical argument in a similar way to Aristotle, the ancient Chinese theory stresses the foundational role of a particular notion of kind, thus makes the construction and application of analogical arguments become highly flexible and context-sensitive. (i) The basketball program probably has a higher proportion of students on full scholarship than does the English department. It is a Greek word meaning “end” for telos and a “logos” which means the study of, and in this case, it refers to science. On the other hand, we could paraphrase it to say that they created a clear and present danger that is just as clear and present as falsely shouting fire in a theater. The researchers scraped the reddish residue from the jars and analyzed the samples with infrared spectroscopy. 5. Or, for example, one of them is spoken aloud, while the other could be written down; but again, this is irrelevant, for there is no general reason to think that the spoken word is more worthy of free speech protection than the written word. Poetic analogies, unlike more scientific analogies, aren't supposed to be very precise. Also, see explanations of an Argument by Analogy in the lecture notes for Ch. In this case, the basic analog—the content of A—is whales and dolphins. Is the Argument from Analogy a Fallacy? Learn. The result is that a presumed outcome of a philosophical dispute will have to be reconsidered. Look, for example, at the Iranian jar argument. The draft, they contended, violated the constitutional amendment against involuntary servitude. Moreover, if we can satisfactorily charact-erize this reasoning of Hume's, a peda-gogical application will emerge: one valuable way for us to teach students about the logic of analogy will be to have them study Hume's Dialogues, attending both to the specific reasonings it contains and to their bearing on more general issues about logical reasoning. So you got tickets to the Metropolitan Opera’s production of the “Flying Dutchman”? Suppose that, in his junior year, a big-city newspaper offered him a reporter’s job with a three-year guarantee at an unheard-of salary. This is the process through which affirmative or negative statements are used to support or refute a proposition. Remember that the second premise, which declares the basic similarity, is often implicit. Hill’s Criteria for Causality ... experimental evidence, and analogy. We will call such an argument (an argument from F to G—see premise 1 of the form clarified above) a background argument. Analogies are often used merely for rhetorical effect. To unplug you would be to kill him. B, the inferred analog, is the thing in question, the one that the argument draws a conclusion about; in the free speech argument it is expressing ideas that might harm the war effort. For each of the following arguments by analogy, 6 additional premises are given. Proponents of the metaphor may then seek to defend its explanatory merits, in which case the metaphor functions as a standpoint. an agentâs preferences). To try to characterize the role of reasoning by analogy in Hume's Dialogues is a worth-while undertaking in logical interpretation, and success in this can advance our understanding of Hume's thought. We evaluate arguments by analogy according to several criteria: (1) the number of relevant similarities between things being compared, (2) the number of relevant dissimilarities, (3) the number of instances (or cases) of similarities or dissimilarities, and (4) the diversity among the cases. There are three ways to show that an analogical argument is weak: If you can point to something that is a direct result of an analogy, but that is unacceptable to the person presenting the analogy, then you can put that person in a difficult position. implementation of this phenomena using an answer set programming with Description Logics. well past the century mark—one woman is now 134! The argument is logically weaker to the extent that it fails in either of these two areas. Not the correct form condition; as with every other inductive argument, satisfying this condition merely qualifies the argument for any strength that might be conferred by the total evidence condition. Residues from the Iranian and Egyptian jars looked alike and were full of tartaric acid, a chemical naturally abundant only in grapes. The argument is logically weaker to the extent that it fails in either area. Only in desperation did I turn to rape.’ Nobody would buy that from a rapist, and nobody should buy it from a robber.” —Steven Landsburg, Falsely shouting fire in a theater creates, Expressing ideas that might harm the war effort creates. Total Evidence Condition for Arguments from Analogy. Brilliant jurist that he was, I should note that Oliver Wendell Holmes relied, as he should have, on a good deal more than just this argument in support of his conclusion. An overview is provided of all types of metaphors distinguished and their possible argumentative functions. 1 1. Arguments from analogy have two premises and a conclusion. A defense of analogy inference as sui generis, Estructura y dinámica de argumentos analógicos, abductivos y deductivos: un curso de geometrÃa del espacio como contexto de reflexión, An argumentative reconstruction of the computer metaphor of the brain, Figurative analogies and how they are resisted in British Public Bill Committee debates, TENSIONS AND DILEMMAS ABOUT WHAT'S "LEGITIMATE" IN A 3D GEOMETRY COURSE, The Study of Metaphor in Argumentation Theory, An Examination of Surprise and Emotions in the Processing of Anecdotal Evidence, REASONING BY PRECEDENTâBETWEEN RULES AND ANALOGIES, Determination, Uniformity, and Relevance: Normative Criteria for Generalization and Reasoning by Analogy, The Domain Constraint on Analogy and Analogical Argument, The Logic of Metaphor - Analogous Parts of Possible Worlds, Providing an account of so called conductive arguments. Its proponents hold that if human infants, the senile, the comatose, and the cognitively disabled have direct moral status, non-human animals must have a similar status, since there … The traditional philosophical justification for belief in other minds is the argument from analogy, which, as cogently stated by John Stuart Mill, a 19th-century empiricist, argues that, because one’s body and outward behaviour are observably similar to the bodies and behaviour of others, one is justified by analogy in believing that others have feelings like one’s own and not simply … (Holmes is often quoted as calling it “a crowded theater.” He didn’t, though it is probably what he had in mind.). Introduction Analogy, Analogical reasoning makes use of a kind of resemblance of one thing to another for assigning properties from one context to another. His argument played a prominent role in natural theology. Almost all the movies you love, they love. The concept of “vintage year” took on a new meaning this week when two scientists presented the first chemical evidence that wine existed as far back as about 3500 bc. It is also implicit in much of science; for instance, … It’s like sex. CRITERIA, ANALOGY, AND KNOWLEDGE OF OTHER MINDS HERE is a recent argument, due to Professor Norman Mal-1 colm,' against the classical view that knowledge of other minds is based on analogy with knowledge of one's own mind. “The people who get hurt are pretty much innocent,” Breceda said. The more relevant it is, the stronger the logic of the argument might be. ... A good argument by analogy must fulfil the same criteria … Further, it suggests a way of reasoning about which ones are not protected—namely, by thinking about the possible dangers caused by the speech in question. But arguments by analogy are common, too. In an argument from analogy, the property that the inferred analog is alleged to have because the basic analog has it. Don’t jump to the conclusion that an analogy introduces an argument unless there really is—at least implicitly—a conclusion. PLAY. (Sections 2, 3, 4) that the common view of the structure of analogical arguments in law cannot overcome these hurdles. 11: Read Pages 303-308 and, "Common Areas of Argument from Analogy" on page 310. (P2) is almost always implicit but it is the most important premise in terms of the strength of the argument. Graduate courses, for example, are usually assigned higher catalog numbers than are undergraduate courses. Second, negative emotions were part of the intermediate stage that subsequently resulted in risk perception and need for uncertainty reduction prior to information seeking behaviors. 1 Although acknowledg-ing the prominence of analogies in reason-ing, he contended that analogy has some heuristic uses, but an argument based on one is inherently fallacious: Analogies illustrate, and they lead to hypotheses, but thinking in terms of analogy becomes fallacious when the analogy is us-ed as a reason for a principle. The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title. I believe it happened in this case.”, Q: “Do you consider that proper and appropriate?”, A: “I don’t know. And the inferred similarity is that the academic programs are excellent. (pdf) argument from analogy in law, the classical tradition, and. The physics teacher I had in high school is smart, too, so he should be able to revolutionize physics.” The basic similarity is relevant to the inferred similarity—smart is better than stupid when it comes to revolutionizing physics. Let’s now return to the academic excellence argument. Coach Jim Killingsworth of TCU said: ‘I think they should deal with the problem, not do away with it. An analogy is "reasoning or explaining from parallel cases." Fully clarify and evaluate each of the arguments from analogy. Hill’s Criteria for Causality ... experimental evidence, and analogy. As Freud notes, they can make you feel at home—and for that reason they can be especially persuasive. Start studying the six criteria for appraising the strength of analogical arguments.. Arguments by analogy are different from ordinary inductive or deductive arguments and have their own distinct features. By then he will have recovered from his ailment, and can safely be unplugged from you.’ Is it morally incumbent on you to accede to this situation?” —Judith Jarvis Thompson. When a persuasive car salesman won’t let you open the hood to inspect the motor, it may be prudent to shop elsewhere. Analogy examples. Let’s eliminate the ambiguity by using the reasonable-premises approach in revising premise 2; in that case it is as follows: 2. She is diligent and trustworthy. In particular, it suggests that you are wrong if you think that all expressions are protected. If an argument does poorly on either one of these conditions, it should be judged no better than logically weak. Logic why is argument by analogy invalid? Firstly, Let's look what's Analogy by Definition: An Analogy is a Comparison made to draw out similarities between two things. But still, they did it, and the violinist now is plugged into you. Analogical reasoning has lent a powerful psychological boost to the research program by producing the suggestive idea. Any argument based on some already-known similarities between things that concludes some additional point of similarity between them is inductive Argument by Analogy. Traditionally, writers used the argument from historical analogy against the credibility of many early Christian healing claims; more re- cently, however, Gerd Theissen and others have shown that the argument from analogy actually suggests the contrary.5 Against some traditional We start from the assumption that the computer metaphor of the brain constitutes an explanatory hypothesis and set out to reconstruct it as a standpoint defended by a complex argumentation structure: abduction supported by analogy. There are many dissimilarities. What then of my knowledge of the minds of others? As noted at the beginning of the chapter, analogical arguments are custom-made for the way our minds work, which makes them extraordinarily persuasive. I feel like they should have tried to solve their problems.’” —Associated Press. I guess in an analogy, I don’t think J. Edgar Hoover, for example, ever advised everybody he was investigating that they were being investigated.”, Q: “But he, J. Edgar Hoover, wasn’t running a university.”—Lingua Franca. This paper aims to provide a careful study on the relevant ideas in ancient China in order to reconstruct the ancient Chinese theory of argument by analogy, and then to reveal some of its distinctive features through a comparison with the Western counterpart account as developed by Aristotle. Suppose I say, “Einstein was smart, and he was able to revolutionize physics. They can be represented by this form: The two things (or classes of things) that are said to be similar in an argument from analogy. Being aware of these dimensions of metaphor ánd of its potential in argumentation would enrich argumentation studies and metaphor studies alike. Example: Premise: You and a friend have very similar tastes in movies. Let’s clarify it and see: Smart shows up in both premises. They had noticed a red stain while piecing together jars excavated from an Iranian site. What is an analogical argument. Structure arguments from analogy, when it would be loyal to do so, by identifying four things—the basic and inferred analogs and the basic and inferred similarities—then inserting each into its proper place in the form. The strength of an analogy usually rests upon the truth of (HP3). When you consider this question, forget about the basic similarity and concentrate on the two analogs. But even though this argument does well on the first condition, it performs badly on the second and so its logic must be considered weak. Now that's an argument from analogy. But never mind, it’s only for nine months. Inferred analog—in an argument from analogy, the item in question, about which the argument is drawing its conclusion. Arguments by analogy are different from ordinary inductive or deductive arguments and have their own distinct features. [a11] analogical arguments. In that chapter we started with an inverted—and invalid—Socrates argument: We then offered as a validity counterexample this obviously invalid (because of true premises and false conclusion) Atlantic argument: In this way we saw that the Socrates argument was invalid. An inductive argument, sometimes considered bottom-up logic, is one in which premises offer strong support for a conclusion, but one that is not a certainty. One everyday example of an argument from analogy is as follows: since Bob does not enjoy the taste of lettuce, Bob does not think he will enjoy the taste of spinach either, because both lettuce and spinach are leafy greens, are healthy and are both used to make salads. However, after reading Juthe's 2015 paper, Botting was finally convinced that deductivism fails to account for complex argumentation by analogy [Botting 2017]. If they had something like that happen in the English department, would they do away with that? Any other sort of argument can, in principle, lend its strength to an argument from analogy. When the basic similarity is described by a general term, consider whether its meaning shifts from one use to the next. If the form of an argument is such that it is possible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false, then the argument is invalid. But it would be much clearer to simply say that the background argument displaces the argument from analogy. The analogy is between some thing, marked ‘c’ in the schema, and some number of other things, marked ‘a1’, ‘a2’, and so on in the schema. Argument by analogy: In an argument by analogy a conclusion is claimed to depend on analogy (a comparison or similarity) between two or more than two things. Identify the CRITERION that justifies this judgment. If an analogical argument is strong, then it raises the probability that the conclusion is true. Sample answer. William Paley’s watchmaker analogy is basically a teleological argument. The premise would probably be true, but we would have created the same logical difficulty described in the Einstein argument—the basic similarity is not the same in each premise. Philosophy stack. Is not protected by the right to free speech is the inferred similarity in the free speech argument. If the similarities between the things being compared are major and the differences only minor, then it is a strong analogy. Analogy and analogical reasoning (stanford encyclopedia of. Total Evidence Condition for Arguments from Analogy. It is the background argument, which ignores the analogs and is concerned solely with the basic and inferred similarities, that serves as the argument’s motor. This is relevant, since student exposure to faculty can contribute powerfully to academic excellence. This fallacy is called the "argument from analogy." 3 Write. This illuminates a certain Wittgensteinean use of analogy whereby a “picture” from one domain is … Thelma is a driving lessons instructor. The basic similarity, creating a clear and present danger, certainly counts in favor of the inferred similarity of not being protected by the right to free speech. This form of argument is widely used to fill "the gap between facts and rule" (Weinreb 2005, 92). This is an argument in which the premises are supposed to support the conclusion in such a way that if the premises are true, it is improbable that the conclusion would be false. One thing about arguments from analogy is that conclusions drawn from them are not logically necessary. It is far better to explain more specifically how it is that some necessary condition for soundness has not been satisfied. Sometimes these arguments don’t generate any controversy. Put another way, an analogy is a comparison between two different things in order to highlight some point of similarity. Even if you are not persuaded by the proposed analogy between shouting fire and distributing leaflets, it is certainly suggestive. First, the basic similarity must be relevant—that is, it must count toward the presence of the inferred similarity. “They take a walk on the beach at Puerto Vallarta at 3 a.m. and nothing happens, and so they assume it’s OK to do it here. To this end, we present qualitative analyses of a number of case studies of resistance to figurative analogies found in the British Public Bill Committee debates on the Education Bill 2010â11 by employing the three-dimensional model of metaphor ( Steen, 2011 ) and the pragma-dialectical theory of argumentation ( Van Eemeren, 2010 ). are encouraged to believe, could do the same for us. One philosopher, arguing that the rights of a rape victim to make decisions about her body can be more important than the right to life of a fetus, develops the following analogy: “Let me ask you to imagine this. Think of a student sitting in a mathematics exam and making a crucial mistake in a proof. 4. Analogy and analogical reasoning (stanford encyclopedia of. The first step in evaluating how well this argument satisfies the total evidence condition is to ignore the two analogs (citizens of Georgia and us) and ask whether the basic similarity—eating yogurt—counts in favor of the inferred similarity—a long life. Not the second part of the total evidence condition; the absence of relevant dissimilarities simply means there is no evidence to undermine whatever strength it has. “Look round the world. This kind of reasoning is used quite often by human beings, especially in unseen situations. The argument from analogy is logical only if this generalization works.
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